MOTHERBOARD FORM FACTOR

Computer motherboard form factors refer to the standardized sizes and layouts of motherboards, which dictate their physical dimensions, mounting hole locations, and connector placements. Different form factors are designed to accommodate various case sizes, component configurations, and usage scenarios. Here are some common computer motherboard form factors:

1. ATX (Advanced Technology eXtended): ATX is the most popular motherboard form factor for desktop PCs. It typically measures around 12" x 9.6" (305 mm x 244 mm) and provides ample space for expansion slots, RAM slots, and connectors. ATX motherboards are widely compatible with ATX cases and offer a good balance of features and expandability.

2. MicroATX (mATX): MicroATX motherboards are smaller than ATX boards, typically measuring around 9.6" x 9.6" (244 mm x 244 mm). They offer fewer expansion slots and connectors compared to ATX, making them suitable for smaller cases or budget-oriented builds. MicroATX motherboards are compatible with both MicroATX and ATX cases.

3. Mini-ITX: Mini-ITX is the smallest standard motherboard form factor, measuring around 6.7" x 6.7" (170 mm x 170 mm). Despite their compact size, Mini-ITX motherboards can accommodate a CPU socket, RAM slots, expansion slots (usually limited to one PCIe slot), and various connectors. Mini-ITX motherboards are popular for small form factor (SFF) and compact PC builds.

4. Extended ATX (E-ATX): Extended ATX motherboards are larger than standard ATX boards, typically measuring over 12" in width. They offer additional expansion slots and connectors compared to ATX, making them suitable for high-end desktops or workstations with multiple GPUs, storage devices, and other peripherals. E-ATX motherboards may require compatible cases with extra space and mounting points.

5. FlexATX: FlexATX is a compact motherboard form factor designed for space-constrained environments or specialized applications. It measures around 9" x 7.5" (229 mm x 191 mm) and offers limited expansion options compared to larger form factors. FlexATX motherboards are commonly used in small form factor PCs, embedded systems, or industrial applications.

6. XL-ATX: XL-ATX is an extended version of the ATX form factor, offering additional space for more expansion slots and connectors. XL-ATX motherboards are larger than standard ATX and may require compatible cases with extra width to accommodate their size.

These are just a few examples of motherboard form factors, and there are others tailored for specific purposes or niche applications. When building a PC, it's important to ensure compatibility between the motherboard form factor, case size, and other components to create a balanced and functional system.

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The primary differences between AT and ATX power supplies

 

The primary differences between AT and ATX power supplies lie in their design, form factor, and features. Here's a breakdown:

AT Power Supply:

1. Design: AT (Advanced Technology) power supplies were the standard for PCs in the 1980s and early 1990s. They used a single 20-pin connector for the motherboard's power supply.

2. Form Factor: AT power supplies are larger and less efficient compared to modern power supplies. They typically have a size of around 5.9" (width) x 3.4" (height) x 5.5" (depth).

3. Switch: AT power supplies usually have a physical on/off switch directly on the power supply unit.

4. Wiring: AT power supplies had fewer connectors and generally lower power output compared to modern power supplies.

ATX Power Supply:

1. Design: ATX (Advanced Technology Extended) power supplies were introduced in the mid-1990s and became the standard for PCs. They use a 20 or 24-pin connector for the motherboard's power supply.

2. Form Factor: ATX power supplies are more compact and efficient compared to AT power supplies. They adhere to specific form factors like ATX, microATX, and mini-ITX, with standardized dimensions.

3. Switch: ATX power supplies typically do not have a physical on/off switch on the power supply unit itself. Instead, the power supply is controlled by the motherboard's power button.

4. Wiring: ATX power supplies feature more connectors, including additional 4-pin or 8-pin CPU power connectors, SATA power connectors for modern hard drives and SSDs, PCIe power connectors for graphics cards, and more.

5. Features: ATX power supplies often include features such as active power factor correction (PFC), which helps improve efficiency and reduce harmonic distortion.

6. Compatibility: ATX power supplies are more compatible with modern motherboards and components, offering better support for newer technologies and higher power requirements.

In summary, ATX power supplies are more compact, efficient, and feature-rich compared to the older AT power supplies. They are the standard choice for modern PC builds due to their compatibility with current hardware and improved efficiency.

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Theory -121 :- Root Cause Analysis

 

INTRODUCTION                            

           Root cause analysis (RCA) is a method of problem solving used for identifying the root causes of faults or problems.[1] A factor is considered a root cause if removal thereof from the problem‐fault‐sequence prevents the final undesirable event from recurring; whereas a causal factor is one that affects an event's outcome, but is not a root cause. Though removing a causal factor can benefit an outcome, it does not prevent its recurrence within certainty.

For example,

imagine an investigation into a machine that stopped because it overloaded and the fuse blew.[2] Investigation shows that the machine overloaded because it had a bearing that wasn't being sufficiently lubricated. The investigation proceeds further and finds that the automatic lubrication mechanism had a pump which was not pumping sufficiently, hence the lack of lubrication. Investigation of the pump shows that it has a worn shaft. Investigation of why the shaft was worn discovers that there isn't an adequate mechanism to prevent metal scrap getting into the pump. This enabled scrap to get into the pump, and damage it. The root cause of the problem is therefore that metal scrap can contaminate the lubrication system. Fixing this problem ought to prevent the whole sequence of events recurring. Compare this with an investigation that does not find the root cause: replacing the fuse, the bearing, or the lubrication pump will probably allow the machine to go back into operation for a while. But there is a risk that the problem will simply recur, until the root cause is dealt with.

General principles of root cause analysis

1. The primary aim of root cause analysis is: to identify the factors that resulted in the nature, the magnitude, the location, and the timing of the harmful outcomes (consequences) of one or more past events; to determine what behaviors, actions, inactions, or conditions need to be changed; to prevent recurrence of similar harmful outcomes; and to identify lessons that may promote the achievement of better consequences. ("Success" is defined as the near‐certain prevention of recurrence.)
2. To be effective, root cause analysis must be performed systematically, usually as part of an investigation, with conclusions and root causes that are identified backed up by documented evidence. A team effort is typically required.
3. There may be more than one root cause for an event or a problem, wherefore the difficult part is demonstrating the persistence and sustaining the effort required to determine them.
4.  The purpose of identifying all solutions to a problem is to prevent recurrence at lowest cost in the simplest way. If there are alternatives that are equally effective, then the simplest or lowest cost approach is preferred.
5. The root causes identified will depend on the way in which the problem or event is defined. Effective problem statements and event descriptions (as failures, for example) are helpful and usually required to ensure the execution of appropriate analyses.
6. One logical way to trace down root causes is by utilizing hierarchical clustering data‐mining solutions (such as GT data mining). A root cause is defined in that context as "the conditions that enable one or more causes". Root causes can be deductively sorted out from upper groups of which the groups include a specific cause. 154
7. To be effective, the analysis should establish a sequence of events or timeline for understanding the relationships between contributory (causal) factors, root cause(s) and the defined problem or event to be prevented.

Limitations of Root Cause Analysis

RCA is one of the most widely used methods to improving patient safety, but few data exist that uphold its effectiveness. The quality of RCA varies across facilities, and its effectiveness in lowering risk or improving medical safety has not been systematically established. The quality of RCA is dependent on the accuracy of the input data as well as the capability of the RCA team to appropriately use these data to create an action plan. In some cases, only one source of error or a few sources of error are emphasized, when in reality the situation might be more complex. The thoughts, conversations, and relationships of members play an important role in determining the effectiveness of an RCA team People tend to select and interpret data to support their prior opinions. An atmosphere of trust, openness, and honesty is critical to encourage members to share what they know without fear of being criticized or unacknowledged.

General process for performing and documenting an RCA‐based Corrective Action

1. Define the problem or describe the event to prevent in the future. Include the qualitative and quantitative attributes (properties) of the undesirable outcomes. Usually this includes specifying the natures, the magnitudes, the locations, and the timing of events. In some cases, "lowering the risks of reoccurrences" may be a reasonable target. For example, "lowering the risks" of future automobile accidents is certainly a more economically attainable goal than "preventing all" future automobile accidents.
2. Gather data and evidence, classifying it along a timeline of events to the final failure or crisis. For every behavior, condition, action and inaction, specify in the "timeline" what should have been done when it differs from what was done.
3.  In data mining Hierarchical Clustering models, use the clustering groups instead of classifying: (a) peak the groups that exhibit the specific cause; (b) find their upper‐groups; (c) find group characteristics that are consistent; (d) check with experts and validate.
4.  Ask "why" and identify the causes associated with each sequential step towards the defined problem or event. "Why" is taken to mean "What were the factors that directly resulted in the effect?"
5. Classify causes into two categories: causal factors that relate to an event in the sequence; and root causes that interrupted that step of the sequence chain when eliminated.
6. Identify all other harmful factors that have equal or better claim to be called "root causes." If there are multiple root causes, which is often the case, reveal those clearly for later optimum selection.
7.  Identify corrective action(s) that will, with certainty, prevent recurrence of each harmful effect and related outcomes or factors. Check that each corrective action would, if pre‐implemented before the event, have reduced or prevented specific harmful effects.
8.  Identify solutions that, when effective and with consensus agreement of the group: prevent recurrence with reasonable certainty; are within the institution's control; meet its goals and objectives; and do not cause or introduce other new, unforeseen problems

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Theory - 120 :- Service Management Concept

Service Management Concept

INTRODUCTION                

Service management in the manufacturing context, is integrated into supply chain management as the intersection between the actual sales and the customer. The aim of high performance service management is to optimize the service‐intensive supply chains, which are usually more complex than the typical finished‐goods supply chain. Most service‐intensive supply chains require larger inventories and tighter integration with field service and third parties. They also must accommodate inconsistent and uncertain demand by establishing more advanced information and product flows. Moreover, all processes must be coordinated across numerous service locations with large numbers of parts and multiple levels in the supply chain.

Among typical manufacturers, post‐sale services (maintenance, repair and parts) account for less than 20 percent of revenue. But among the most innovative companies in service, those same activities often generate more than 50 percent of the profits.

Benefits

• The main drivers for a company to establish or optimize its service management practices are varied:
• High service costs can be reduced, i.e. by integrating the service and products supply chain.
• Inventory levels of service parts can be reduced and therefore reduce total inventory costs.
• Customer service or parts/service quality can be optimized.
• Increasing service revenue
• Reduce obsolescence costs of service parts through improved forecasting.
• Improve customer satisfaction levels.
• Reduce expediting costs ‐ with optimized service parts inventory, there is no need to rush orders to customers.
• Minimize technician visits ‐ if they have the right part in hand, they can fix the problem on the first visit.

• Service strategy and service offerings

•  Service strategy definition

•  Service offerings definition & positioning 
• Go‐to‐market strategy
•  Service portfolio management

• Spare parts management
• Parts supply management
• Inventory management
• Parts demand management
• Fulfillment operations & logistics
• Service parts management

• Returns, repairs, and warranties
• Warranty & claims management  
• Reverse logistics
• Returns processing
• Remanufacturing

• Field service management or field force effectiveness
• Technician enablement
• Mobility
• E‐learning
• Activity scheduling
• Service billing

• Customer management
• Order management & availability  
• Channel & partner management
• Customer insight
• Technical documentation

• Assets, maintenance, task scheduling, event management
• Remote monitoring
• Diagnostics & testing
• Asset management/optimization
• Configuration management

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Theory :- 116 :- Form Factor Of Mother Board

Form factor of mother board

Motherboard Form Factors

MicroATX

 The microATX form factor was developed as a natural evolution of the ATX form factor to address new market trends and PC technologies. While offering the same benefits of the ATX form factor specification, the microATX form factor improves upon the previous specification in several key areas. Current trends in the industry indicate that users require a lower‐cost solution for their PC needs. Without sacrificing the benefits of ATX, this form factor addresses the cost requirement by reducing the size of the motherboard. The smaller motherboard is made possible by reducing the number of I/O slots supported on the board. The overall effect of these size changes reduces the costs associated with the entire system design. The expected effect of these reductions is to lower the total system cost to the end user.

<p

Through careful designing of a microATX motherboard, an OEM can capitalize on the benefits of a reduction in total system costs. These cost savings come from a reduced‐output power supply (see the separate document SFX Power Supply Design Guide), reduced chassis costs, and minimal redesign of existing ATX compliant chassis for backward‐compatibility.

<p

microATX benefits also include those found with the current ATX form factor: more I/O space at the rear and reduced emissions from using integrated I/O connectors.

.</p>

 FlexATX

 FlexATX offers the opportunity for system developers to create many new personal  computer designs.

.

BTX               

Balanced Technology Extended (BTX) Form Factor

The BTX form factor specification gives developers options to balance thermal management, acoustics, system performance, and size in the system form factors and stylish designs that are desired in today's products. The BTX form factor is a clear break from previous ATX form factor layouts and was developed with emerging technologies such as Serial ATA, USB 2.0, and PCI Express*.

Thermal improvements come primarily from taking advantage of in‐line airflow. The BTX defined in‐line airflow layout allows many of the main board components (i.e.: processor, chipset, and graphics controller) to utilize the same primary fan airflow, thereby reducing the need for, and 136 noise from, additional system fans. In some cases this also allows fewer and/or less expensive heat sinks to be used when compared to ATX solutions. The system level acoustics are also improved by the reduced air turbulence within the in‐line airflow system. The BTX layout supports better component placement for back panel I/O controllers – important as the signal speed of external devices continues to increase. In addition to smaller than microATX system sizes, BTX was designed to scale up to tower size systems using the same core layout by increasing the number of system slots included.

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THEORY - 113 :- SMPS

 What is SMPS (Switch-Mode Power Supply)?

The full name of SMPS is Switch-Mode Power Supply. SMPS is defined in simple language when the need for electricity comes in the form of a switch. In which electrical energy is converted from one form to another with essential properties called SMPS. This power is used to obtain a regulatory DC input voltage from DC output or uncontrollable AC for power. SMPS is just as complex as any other power supply system. This is a power source used for loading.

SMPS is an important device for a wide variety of electrical and electronic devices. Which provides it with a source of power consumption specifically designed for electronic projects?

 

Working Principle of SMPS (Switch Mode Power Supply):

The working principle of switch-mode power supply topologies is as follows:

1. AC-DC Converter SMPS Working:

In this type of SMPS, the input supply is AC and in the output, we get DC supply. Rectifiers and filters are used to convert this AC power to DC. This uncontrollable DC voltage is given to the affected power factor correction circuits. This is because there is a low current pulse inside the rectifier around the peak of the voltage.

This includes high-frequency energy which influences to reduce the power factor. This is due to power conversion but we have used AC input instead of DC input supply. Therefore, a combination of rectifier and filter, this block diagram is used to convert AC to DC, and switching an operation is done using a power muffle amplifier.

MOSFET transistors use low resistance and are capable of resisting high currents. The switching frequency is chosen so that normal humans (above 20KHz) must be kept low and the operation of the switch is controlled using a PWM oscillator.

Again this AC voltage is given to the output of the transformer as shown in the figure or the voltage level goes down. After that, the output of this transformer is fixed and smoothed using the Output filter and corrector. The output voltage is controlled by the reaction circuit compared to the reference voltage.

Advantages of Smps:

The benefits of SMPS are as follows:

High efficiency:

The main advantage of SMPS is that it is more efficient than linear regulators. This is because the switching transistor dissipates a little power when it acts as a switch.

Compact:

Forms SMPS can be made more compact as a result of higher efficiency and lower levels of heat dissipation.

Costs:

Switch-mode is the value of a point making the power supply. Efficiency The high efficiency and switching nature of the design means that the standby power loss is often lower than that of transformers and this reduces costs.

Flexible Technology:

The SMPS feature can be used to provide high-efficiency voltage conversion to voltage step-up or “boost” applications or to step-down “buck” applications.

Applications of SMPS:

The application of SMPS is as follows:

•  The most common use of this is in computers.
•  Smps is used in security systems.
•  This is used in the railway system.
•  It is also used in battery chargers.
•  It is also widely used in machine tool industries.

 

Questionnaires  

1. What is the main function of SMPS?

SMPS is a switch-mode power supply. A type of high-frequency power conversion device and abbreviation for power supply device. Its function is to convert the required voltage or current level by various forms of architecture.

2. How does a switch power supply work?

SMPS works by turning the main power on and off at a high speed to reduce the voltage. In such a case the reduction in voltage depends on the ratio of time and off time. Switching happens very quickly, 10,000 times or faster per second.

3. What is SMPS short answer?

SMPS stands for Switch-Mode-Power-Supply. It is used in all types of computers. Today’s modern computers have an SMPS that takes the improved AC input power from the board in the house, by making a power factor correction and then converting the output to a single or lower voltage DC output.

4. What are SMPS Applications?

The application of SMPS is as follows:

·         The most common use of this is in computers.

·         Smps is used in security systems.

·         This is used in the railway system.

·         It is also used in battery chargers.

·         It is also widely used in machine tool industries.

 

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THEORY- 112 :- LAPTOP AND ITS COMPONENTS

What Is a Laptop Computer?

A laptop computer is smaller than a desktop computer, generally less than three inches thick, and weigh less than desktop computers. The laptop's size makes it convenient for transportation in briefcases, backpacks, and other bags.

The device derives its name from being able to be used by resting on a person's lap without the need for a desk or other surface. Laptop computers may also be referred to as notebook computers, though a notebook computer usually describes a computer that is smaller and lighter than a laptop computer.

Types of Laptop Computers

While there are no specific types of laptops, retailers generally give them categories for consumers to help them find one for their needs. Some of the labels you might find at a retailer are:

• Value
• Everyday
• Gaming
• Professional
• Ultraportable or notebook

The Hardware Components & Parts of Laptop

There are various hardware components and parts in laptop computer. Which are given below.

    Display Screen              Top Panel                    Base Panel            Keyboard        Touchpad

    Motherboard                 CPU                           Cooling Fan          RAM                ROM

    HDD                                SSD                           Wireless Card       Video Card     Optical Drive

    Battery                           Charger                      Speaker                Hinges              External Port

    Camera                           Palm Rest Assembly

Display Screen

The display screen is one of the main parts of the laptop, the display screen can also be called a monitor screen, just as a desktop computer has a monitor screen, in the same way, a laptop has a display screen.          

A display screen is an output device that the user uses to take the output of his input data.

The display is an important component of the laptop so that a user can use the laptop. Users without a screen cannot use a laptop computer.           

• LCD
• LED
• VGA
• XVGA
• CCFL

2. Top Panel

The top panel is also one of the important parts of the laptop. The top panel is in every type of laptop computer.

The top panel is the part of the laptop in which the display screen of the laptop is fitted. Or say in simple language, the screen of the laptop is installed in the top panel of the laptop.

3. Base Panel

The base panel is also one of the main parts of the laptop. You can also call the base panel an important part of the laptop because all the parts of the laptop fit in the base panel itself.

Such as - Motherboard, Processor, Hard Disk, SSD, Battery, Optical Drive, Keyboard, Touchpad and Cooling Fan, etc. Or in simple language, all the components of a laptop computer are installed in the base panel of the laptop.

4. Keyboard

The keyboard is also one of the important parts of a laptop. The keyboard is located on the base panel of the laptop. Using the keyboard, the user inputs any type of data into the laptop computer because the keyboard is an input device.

The keyboard of a laptop is smaller in size than the external keyboard, but there are as many buttons on an external keyboard as there are on the keyboard of the laptop.

5. Touchpad

The touchpad is also one of the important parts of a laptop.

A touchpad works like a computer mouse, just like a desktop computer has a mouse, in the same way, laptop computers have a touchpad.

Touchpad and computer mouse are both pointing devices and have the same function.

6. Motherboard

The motherboard is also one of the important parts of the laptop. The motherboard of the laptop is also in the base panel.

The motherboard is such a part of the laptop in which all the components of the laptop computer and CPU are present there. In the motherboard itself, many parts of the laptop are connected to each other.

7. CPU

CPU is also one of the main parts of the laptop. The laptop CPU is also located in the base panel.

CPU means Central Processing Unit or you can also call CPU as Processor. The job of the processor is to process the user's data. That's why a processor is also called a processing device. 

A processing device is the brain of the laptop computer, all the instructions start executing from here. 

8. Cooling Fan           

The cooling fan is also a part of the laptop, the cooling fan is also in the base panel of the laptop. 

Cooling fans are found in laptops and desktop computers, but the cooling fans of laptops are smaller than the cooling fans of desktop computers. 

When you are working on your laptop for a long time then your laptop starts getting hot, then the job of a cooling fan is to keep your laptop cool.

9. RAM

RAM is also an important part of the laptop, RAM is in the motherboard of the laptop. 

RAM is the primary memory, this memory is present in every laptop and desktop computer. Laptop RAM is smaller than the size of desktop computer RAM

There are also many types of RAM memory, which have different functions, one of the functions of RAM memory is to load the operating system.

10. ROM

ROM is also an important part of a laptop, ROM is in the laptop's motherboard. ROM is also a primary memory, this memory is in every laptop and desktop computer. ROM means read-only memory. As the name suggests, this memory can only read any data.

There are also many types of ROM Memory, which have different functions, the function of ROM memory is to give instructions to load the operating system.

There are also many types of ROM Memory, which have different functions, the function of ROM memory is to give instructions to load the operating system.

12. SSD

SSD is also an important part of the laptop, the SSD is also in the base panel of the laptop.SSD is a storage device. SSD stands for a solid-state drive. Solid State Drive is not on every laptop and desktop computer, you have to install separately an SSD on your laptop or desktop computer.

SSD is much faster than HDD and SSD are also costlier than HDD. SSD is also a permanent storage device in which you can save your data.

13. Wireless Card

A wireless card is one of the important components of a laptop. The wireless card is also located in the base panel of the laptop. By taking a wireless card, you can run the internet on your laptop without an Ethernet cable.

Using a wireless card, you can run Wi-Fi the internet. Without a wireless card, you cannot run wireless internet on your laptop.

14. Video Card

The video card is also an important part of a laptop computer. You can also call video cards a graphics card and you can also call graphics cards GPU. 

GPU stands for Graphics Processing Unit.

The video card enhances the video quality of the laptop. If you see the photo of a video on your laptop using a video card, then the video or photo will look colorful.

11. HDD

HDD is also an important part of the laptop, the HDD is in the base panel of the laptop itself.

HDD is a storage device. HDD means hard disk drive. The hard disk drive is present in every laptop and desktop computer, but the hard disk drive of a laptop is smaller than that of a desktop computer.

HDD is a permanent storage device in which you can save your data.

12. SSD

SSD is also an important part of the laptop, the SSD is also in the base panel of the laptop.

SSD is a storage device. SSD stands for a solid-state drive. Solid State Drive is not on every laptop and desktop computer, you have to install separately an SSD on your laptop or desktop computer.

SSD is much faster than HDD and SSD are also costlier than HDD.

SSD is also a permanent storage device in which you can save your data.

13. Wireless Card

A wireless card is one of the important components of a laptop. The wireless card is also located in the base panel of the laptop.

By taking a wireless card, you can run the internet on your laptop without an Ethernet cable.

Using a wireless card, you can run Wi-Fi the internet. Without a wireless card, you cannot run wireless internet on your laptop.

14. Video Card

The video card is also an important part of a laptop computer. You can also call video cards a graphics card and you can also call graphics cards GPU.

GPU stands for Graphics Processing Unit.

The video card enhances the video quality of the laptop. If you see the photo of a video on your laptop using a video card, then the video or photo will look colorful. And if you watch the same video or image on your laptop without graphics, then you will not see that video or image in colorful.

15. Optical Drive

Optical drives are also components of a laptop. Optical Drive It is present on the base panel of the laptop.  Optical drives are used for reading and writing optical discs. Through an optical drive, you can copy the data of the optical disc to your laptop.

16. Battery

The battery is also one of the important parts of a laptop computer. The battery is also present in the base panel of the laptop.

The battery is in every laptop computer, even after the line is cut, you can run your laptop using the battery and complete your work.

The battery backup of a laptop computer is for a long time so that you can use the laptop anywhere.

17. Charger

The charger is also one of the important parts of a laptop computer. You can also call the charger a power cable.

Your laptop's battery is charged from the charger itself so that after the power cut, the laptop runs from the battery.

You know that the charger or power cable is the same, which works both such as - the battery of the laptop is also charged and also gives the current to run the laptop from the line.

18. Speaker

The speaker is also a laptop. The speaker is also present in the base panel of the laptop.

With the use of the speaker, you can also listen to different types of songs on your laptop computer, and the speaker is in every laptop computer.

19. Hinges

Hinges are also one of the very important parts of a laptop computer.

Hinges are a type of metal, which is attached to the base panel and top panel of the laptop. The laptop screen opens and closes only through hinges. Or in simple words, with the use of hinges, the screen of the laptop is from top to bottom and bottom to top.

20. External Ports

External ports are also important parts of laptop computers. You must have seen that there are many ports in the base panel of the laptop, which are used to connect many types of devices.

Given below are the names of some external ports which are in laptop computers.

• USB Port
• VGA port
• Mic Port
• Ethernet Cable port
• Headphone Jack Port

21. Camera

The camera is also a part of the laptop. The camera is located on the top panel of the laptop. The camera is of every laptop computer, which is used for video calling.

You can also hold meetings with Google Meet through a laptop camera.

22. Palm Rest Assembly

Palm Rest Assembly is also a part of the laptop that is inside the base panel of the laptop.

Say in simple words, the keyboard and touchpad are installed in the Palm Rest Assembly and one very important thing is the Palm Rest Assembly is like a shield that protects the laptop's motherboard from external dust and water. 

And if you watch the same video or image on your laptop without graphics, then you will not see that video or image in colorful.

 

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